Unit 2- Ethical Issue Essay- What is Food?

The Health of Our Future

What is food? Food should be a nutritional and healthy way of life. In a world where obesity seems to be affecting millions I think now is the time to evaluate all aspects of producing and cooking our food. Obesity is on the rise and this problem needs to be dealt with.

These days I can see how young children are easily becoming obese. I remember when I was in school, when lunch time came around; food was usually purchased out of the vending machine or at the snack bar of the cafeteria which contained greasy unhealthy foods that lacked nutrition. Not only does it seem kids eat unhealthy at school, but also at home. It seems more and more parents have to work hard, long hours. Which leads to them bringing home fast food or take out for themselves and family because they are too tired to hassle with cooking a meal.

Another problem I also see is that kids are becoming lazier. Instead of having a healthy snack after school, they turn to what they think tastes good and seems quick and easy for them. It doesn’t help the fact that kids these days are spending more time indoors playing video games and watching television. I know when I was young we always had home cooked meals, hardly ever ate out, and spent time from dawn until dusk playing and being active outside.

As for adults I have a harder time with them being obese, I see no excuse for this. They should know how important it is to eat healthy and set better examples for their children, especially if obesity tends to run in the family. Without an adult around allowing it, children wouldn’t be able to always eat out. I feel its very important for adults to ensure that the younger generations learn about good nutrition and eat well to promote long healthy disease free lives.

So in conclusion we need to spend more time preparing our food and less time depending on take out to meet our nutritional needs. By leading healthier lifestyles we can not only better ourselves but also set examples for the younger generations.

Self/ Unit Evaluation

REGARDING YOUR OWN PERFORMANCE
1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?
The three aspects I am most proud of are both of my online labs and the first compendium review. All three of these helped me learn more and I enjoyed doing them.

2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?
The second compendium review could have used a little more effort maybe and the first quiz I took I could have and should have done better on.

3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?
I think I should get an A or so, I put a lot of effort into this unit and I hope it shows through my work.

4. How could I perform better in the next unit?
Again I could not procrastinate and take better notes as I am reading the chapters for my reviews and quizzes.

REGARDING THE UNIT (adapted from Stephen Brookfield, University of St. Thomas "Critical Incident Questionnaire")

At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?
During the cardiovascular readings I was more engaged because my step-father has heart issues so I was familiar with some of the information but this helped me understand all that he is going through much better.

At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course?
I felt more distanced in the nutrional and the AIDS portion because I felt like I am already familiar with the topics.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful?
With the big lab project my mom helped me to understand blood pressures better.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing?
No action really comes to mind.

What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions
to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)
For the big lab project I did this at my sisters and her husband is a big built guy so when taking blood pressures I took my dad's and my brother in laws and surprsingly they were normal. Now I say surprsingly because we had a b-b-q the night before with alcohol consumption and my brother in law actually has high blood pressure usually. :) So that was definately surprising results! HA!

Compendium Review Unit 2/ Topic 2- Nutrition

Compendium Review- Unit 2- Topic 2- Nutrition


Chapter 8: Digestive System and Nutrition
8.1- Overview of Digestion
8.2- First Part of the Digestive Tract
8.3- The Stomach and the Small Intestine
8.4- Three Accessory Organs and Regulation of Secretions
8.5- The Large Intestine and Defecation
8.6- Nutrition and Weight Control

8.1- Overview of Digestion
The GI tract is the tube that holds the digestive system organs. Ingestion is whenever the mouth takes in food. Digestion can be either mechanical or chemical. Chemical digestion begins in the mouth and is completed once the food reaches the small intestine. Mechanical digestion happens in the mouth and stomach and occurs when food is cut into pieces. Movement of the GI tract gets food from one organ to the next. Absorption helps nutrients enter the blood to get to the cells. Defecation is what eliminates molecules that can’t be digested.
GI tract consists of four layers, 1- mucosa which produces mucus protecting the wall from digestive enzymes. A disorder associated with the first layer is known as diverticulosis is when parts f this layer push through other layers causing pouches that can collect food. 2- submucosa contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerves. Inflammatory bowel disease is associated with the second layer. 3- muscularis has two layers of smooth muscle, contraction of these muscles gets digested food from the esophagus to the anus. A disorder associated with the third layer is irritable bowel syndrome. 4- serosa- secretes a serous fluid. Appendicitis is a disorder associated with the fourth and final layer of the GI tract.

8.2- First Part of the Digestive Tract
First parts of the digestive tract consist of the mouth, pharynx and esophagus.
The mouth is what receives the food and starts the process of mechanical and chemical digestion. The roof of the mouth is what separates the nasal and oral cavities. Roof consists of two parts hard palate which is in the front and a soft palate which is in the back. Three salivary glands send saliva with the ducts to the mouth. Saliva consists of mucus and water. When we chew our food into smaller pieces making it easier to swallow we are mechanically digesting. As adults we have thirty-two teeth. Teeth have two main divisions- crown and root. Crown has a layer of enamel and an inner pulp. When bacteria in the mouth metabolizes sugar and gives off acids then cavities and/or tooth decay can occur. Brushing and flossing daily and limiting amount of sweets can help prevent this. Gum disease is linked to cardiovascular disease.
Food passage and air passage cross in the pharynx, where the mouth and nasal passages lead to. Esophagus takes food to the stomach. Swallowing is voluntary until a food or drink is pushed back into the pharynx. The soft palate closes the nasal passage and the trachea moves under the epiglottis to cover the glottis during swallowing to make the food go through the esophagus. Glottis- opening to larynx or voice box. We don’t breath when we swallow. If food goes down wrong its in the nasal cavity or trachea which coughing gets up and back down the right way. Peristalsis is a contraction that gets food along the esophagus and in all organs of the digestive tract, moves food bolus from mouth to the stomach. Sphincters are muscles that act as valves encircling tubes. Sphincter relaxing (valves open) lets food pass into the stomach and when constricted (valves closed) keeps acid of the stomach backing up into the esophagus. Sphincters relax a few seconds when something is swallowed allowing it to get from the esophagus into the stomach. Heartburn is caused by acid efflux- stomachs contents get into the esophagus. Diaphragm- muscle separating thoracic and abdominal cavities- and abdominal muscles contract when throwing up.

8.3- The Stomach and the Small Intestine
The stomach and small intestine are what complete the digestion process. The stomach is on the left side and is thick walled, consisting of the four usual layers. Food is stored in the stomach and normally empties in two to six hours. Food leaves in a thick, soapy liquid that is called chyme.

Small intestine is about eighteen feet long and the large intestine is only about four and a half feet. The small intestine consists of enzymes that digest all sorts of foods. The enzymes are secreted by the pancreas and enter through a duct at the duodenum, which is the first twenty-five centimeters of the small intestine. Bile is brought from the liver and gallbladder to the duodenum, bile is what emulsifies fat. The small intestine absorbs nutrients.

The primary sugar in milk is lactose. Lactose intolerance occurs in people who don’t have the brush border enzymes called lactase. Any dairy products that are lactose free or that the lactose has already been broken down in can be consumed without the side effects that have not. Side effects include cramps, gas, bloating and diarrhea. Too much sugar can lead to obesity. Diabetes type two and cardiovascular disease are linked to obesity.

8.4- Three Accessory Organs and Regulation of Secretions
Three accessory organs that help the digestive process are the pancreas, the liver and the gallbladder. The pancreas is behind the stomach and is fish shaped. Pancreas secretes insulin into the blood. If the blood glucose level rises too fast the pancreas will make more than enough insulin to bring it all under control. If our cells become insulin resistant then diabetes type two can occur. The liver is the largest gland in the body and is located in the upper right section of the abdominal cavity. The liver stores iron and vitamins, regulates blood glucose level and cholesterol in blood. The liver produces bile, which is stored in the gallbladder. The gallbladder sits just below the liver in our body. If liquid that’s stored in gallbladder gets hard then its called gallstones.
Some disorders of the liver are jaundice which leaves a yellow tint to people and occurs when bile pigments get into the blood. Hepatitis is inflammation of the liver, hepatitis A can come from sewer infected water and hepatitis B is sexually transmitted or bought on by using dirty needles or blood transfusions. Both A and B have vaccines. Hepatitis C can lead to chronic hepatitis, liver cancer and death. Hep C is brought on by having contact with infected blood. Cirrhosis of the liver is another liver disorder and is common in alcoholics, alcohol causes the liver to break down.

8.5- The Large Intestine and Defecation
The cecum, colon, rectum and anal canal make up the large intestine. The ascending colon goes up the right side of the body, transverse colon goes across the abdomen and the descending colon goes down the left side if the body. The rectum is the last twenty centimeters of the large intestine, it opens at the anus where feces leave the body. The large intestine absorbs vitamins produced by the intestinal flora, it produces feces and defcates which gets rid of all the feces.
Some disorders of the colon and rectum include diarrhea, constipation, hemorrhoids, irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease and polyps and cancer.

8.6- Nutrition and Weight Control
Obesity, being grossly overweight, has double in the U.S. in the last twenty years and is rising throughout the world. The body mass index is a tool used to measure obesity by using a persons weight and height. BMI helps to see how much of a persons weight is due to fat. Obesity can lead to cardiovascular disease, diabetes type 2, stroke, respiratory disfunction and death among others.
Nutrients are components of food that perform a physiological function that provide us with energy, promote growth and regulate cellular metabolism. Carbohydrates can be simple or complex, glucose is simple and preferred for an energy source to the body. A high intake of carbohydrates can lead to obesity. There are twenty different amino acids, eight of which must be present in our diets. They are not stored in the body and are needed daily. Some fats have to be supplied in the diet these are called essential fatty acids. Lipids can be harmful if too much is consumed leading to cardiovascular disease like plaque buildup.
Major minerals and trace minerals make up the mineral category. Trace minerals are parts of larger molecules. Women generally don’t get enough iron, calcium, magnesium and zinc. Calcium helps with the bones and teeth without it osteoporosis can occur, magnesium can help prevent the bone loss cycle. Sodium has a part in the water balance, too much can lead to hypertension.
Vitamins are organic compounds used for metabolic purposes. Vitamin C, E, and A are antioxidants, they help protect the body. Fruits and vegetables may help keep cancer and cardiovascular disease away. Vitamin D is converted from a skin cell containing a precursor cholesterol molecule after UV exposure. If children don’t get enough vitamin D they can get bow legs.
Nutritious meals include variety, eating less junk (added sugars, salt, alcohol, high in saturated and trans fats) and eating more fruits, vegetables and whole grains.
The food guide pyramid is shown below..
Eating disorders are common in people who are dissatisfied with their bodies. Anorexia nervosa is where people starve themselves or binge eat then purge. Bulimia nervosa is where a person will binge eat then purge to avoid weight gain. Muscle dysmorphia is where a person thinks their body is underdeveloped and affects more men than women.

Compendium Review Unit 2- The Body- Internal Maintenance

Compendium Review Unit 2- The Body- Internal Maintenance
Topic One- Oxygen/ Microbes/ Immunity

Chapter 5: Cardiovascular System: Heart and Blood Vessels
5.1- Overview of the Cardiovascular System
5.2- The Types of Blood Vessels
5.3- The Heart is Double Pump
5.4- Features of the Cardiovascular System
5.5- Two Cardiovascular Pathways
5.6- Exchange at the Capillaries
5.7- Cardiovascular Disorders

5.1 Overview of the Cardiovascular System

The heart and blood vessels are the two parts that make up the cardiovascular system.
Blood circulation depends on the beating of the heart and also is what service the cells. Blood does not exchange substances with cells but with tissue fluid. Blood removes waste from tissue fluid and it brings oxygen and nutrients to tissue fluid. Blood is refreshed in the lungs, at the intestines and at the kidneys. Oxygen enters blood at the lungs while carbon dioxide leaves it. The kidneys rid the blood of wastes and nutrients enter the blood at the intestines.
The largest organ of the body which is the liver takes the amino acids from the blood returns proteins to it. The liver removes poisons from blood.
Blood pressure is done with contractions of the heart which allows blood to move through the blood vessels. Blood moves from the heart to the arteries, capillaries and veins before returning back to the heart.
The lymphatic system assists the cardiovascular system because lymphatic vessels collect excess tissue fluid and return it to the cardiovascular system. Once fluid enters the lymphatic vessels it is called lymph which is a tissue fluid.

5.2 The Types of Blood Vessels
Three types of blood vessels are arteries, capillaries and the veins all of which are important to the function of the heart.
The strong walls of the artery are able to give it support when blood enters under pressure. Blood pressure is regulated when arterioles constrict or dilate, the more vessels dilated the lower the blood pressure.
Arterioles branch into capillaries. Blood moves from arteriole to venule by an arteriovenous shunt.
Venules are small veins that drain blood from capillaries and then join to form a vein. Some veins have valves which when the valve is open it allows blood to flow toward the heart and when closed it prevents backflow. Veins that carry blood against the force of gravity are the ones that have valves. Venule and vein walls consist of three layered walls thin inner epithelium, thick smooth muscle layer and outer connective tissue.
5.3 The Heart is Double Pump
Myocardium is the largest part of the heart consists of cardiac muscle tissue. Pericardium is what surrounds the heart, it is a thick membranous sac that supports and protects the heart.
The heart has a right and left side which is separated by the septum. Heart consists of four chambers. Two are the upper, thin walled atrium- the left and right atrium and two lower chambers- thick walled ventricles- the left and right ventricle.
External Heart Anatomy:

Blood travels from the right to the left side of the heart. The right ventricle sends blood through the lungs and the and the left ventricle sends blood throughout the body, this is why the heart is a double pump.
Systole is the working phase of the heart which is the contraction of the chambers. The resting phase is known as diastole which is relaxation of the chambers. The heart beats about 70 times a minute.
The heartbeat is controlled by the SA node and the AV node. The SA node can usually keep the heartbeat regular also known as the pacemaker. There is also a cardiac control center in our brains known as the medulla oblongata which is the external way of regulating the heart beat.
And ECG or electrocardiogram records electrical changes that occur in the myocardium. ECG’s help to detect abnormalities of the heart.

5.4 Features of the Cardiovascular System
Blood is sent into the aorta under pressure when the left ventricle contracts. Blood pressure is highest in the aorta and lowest in the venae cavae.
A pulse is when blood entering the arteries causes their walls to stretch and then recoil and can be felt in arteries close to the body’s surface. Pulse rate = heart rate. Blood pressure moves blood in the arteries and drops off in the capillaries where exchange takes place. Blood pressure is the pressure of blood against the blood vessel wall. Systolic pressure is when blood is ejected from the heart and is the highest arterial pressure. The lowest arterial pressure is diastolic pressure which is when the heart ventricles are relaxing. Hypotension= low blood pressure. Hypertension= high blood pressure.
Blood moves slowly through capillaries because this allows time for exchange of substances between blood in the capillaries and surrounding tissues. Blood flow in veins returns blood to the heart with the skeletal muscle pump, respiratory pump and the valves in veins, which help prevent backflow.

5.5 Two Cardiovascular Pathways

Two circuits in which blood flows are pulmonary circuit- circulates blood through lungs and the systemic circuit- serves needs of body tissues. The pulmonary circuit deals with the exchange of gases, O-2 poor and O-2 rich. The systemic circuit exchanges with tissue fluid. The heart pumps through 60,000 miles of blood vessels. Aorta is the largest artery in the systemic system and receives blood from the heart and largest veins the superior and inferior venae cavae retrun blood to the heart.

Coronary arteries serve the heart muscle. These are the first branches off the aorta. The coronary capillary beds join to form venules which converge to form cardiac veins which empty into the right atrium.
The hepatic portal vein takes blood from the capillary bed to the digestive tract to a capillary bed in the liver. Portal systems always lay between capillary beds. The hepatic vein leaves the liver and enters the inferior cava.

5.6 Exchange at the Capillaries
Blood pressure and osmotic pressure control movement of fluid through the capillary wall. Oxygen and nutrients diffuse out of the capillary while carbon dioxide and wastes diffuse into the capillary.

5.7 Cardiovascular Disorders
The leading cause of untimely death in the Western countries is CVD or cardiovascular disease. Disorders if the blood vessels consist of hypertension which can cause a stroke and possibly an aneurysm which is a bursted blood vessel.
High blood pressure can cause heart attacks, stroke and even kidney failure. When the systolic pressure is greater than 140 or the diastolic pressure is greater than 90 then hypertension is present. Plaque- soft masses of fatty materials including cholesterol beneath inner linings of arteries. If a clot stays still it is called thrombus and when moving through the blood is called embolus.
Strokes can cause some of the brain to die due to lack of oxygen and are usually brought on by a cranial artery bursting. Heart attacks occur when some of the heart muscle dies due to lack of oxygen. And an aneurysm is the ballooning of a blood vessel.
Blood clots can be dissolved with a biotechnology drug known as t-PA and clogged arteries can be treated with open heart surgery.
Heart failure is a disorder of the heart, this occurs when the heart can no longer pump normally. Heart transplants can help this disorder or a left ventricular assist device known as LVAD can help with heart failure.

Chapter 6- Cardiovascular System: Blood
6.1- Blood: An Overview
6.2- Red Blood Cells and Transport of Oxygen
6.3- White Blood Cells and Defense Against Disease
6.4- Platelets and Blood Clotting
6.5- Blood Typing and Transfusions
6.6- Homeostasis

6.1 Blood: An Overview
Blood transports, defends and regulates. The body contains 5 liters of blood which the heart pumps all of this with every beat. Blood delivers oxygen from the lungs and nutrients from the digestive tract to tissues. Blood defends by destroying pathogens and producing antibodies. Blood clots when we are injured to prevent blood loss. Blood regulates body temperature transporting heat throughout the body. It also regulates the pH.
Blood is a liquid tissue made up of cells and cell fragments called formed elements. These are suspended in plasma, a liquid. Red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets make up the formed elements. They are produced in red bone marrow.
Plasma carries different substances in the blood, about 91% of plasma is water the other 9% is different salts and organic molecules. Plasma proteins are organic molecules which the liver produces. Osmotic pressure is what keeps excessive loss of plasma from the capillaries into tissue fluid.

6.2 Red Blood Cells and Transport of Oxygen
Red blood cells transport oxygen. Hemoglobin makes red blood cells and blood the color red. Red blood cells can carry over a billion copies of oxygen. Once blood picks up carbon dioxide 7% dissolves in plasma and hemoglobin transports 25% of CO-2 and the rest is transported as bicarbonate ion in the plasma. Red blood cells live only for 120 days they are destroyed in the liver and spleen. Hemoglobin is released when red blood cells are broken down.
A method of increasing the normal supply of red blood cells is known as blood doping. Athletes use this sometimes.
Anemia is a blood disorder that occurs when there is not enough red blood cells or they don’t have enough hemoglobin. Hemolysis is when red blood cells rupture. Sickle cell disease is hereditary and red blood cells are sickle shaped that tend to rupture when passing through the narrow capillaries.

6.3 White Blood Cells and Defense Against Disease
White blood cells are bigger than red blood cells, are fewer than red blood cells and lack hemoglobin. Colony stimulating factor is the protein that regulates production of each type of white blood cell. White blood cells fight infection and therefore are important to the immune system. White blood cells live for a few days although some live for months or years. White blood cells fight infection with phagocytosis, or producing antibodies which combine with antigens and mark them for destruction.
Granular leukocytes and agranular leukocytes classify white blood cells. Neutrophils are 50-70% of white blood cells and are first to respond to a bacterial infection, they suck up unwanted substances. Pus is the result of their death when in large amounts. Eosinophils increase when a parasitic worm infection or an allergic reaction occurs. Basophils and mast cells release histamine associated with allergic reactions.
Agranular leukocytes are lymphocytes and monocytes. Lymphocytes make up 25-35% of white blood cells and are responsible for specific immunity to particular pathogens and their toxins. B cells and T cells are two types of lymphocytes. T cells destroy pathogens directly and B cells produce antibodies to protect us. Monocytes- largest of white blood cells stimulate white blood cells to defend the body.
Disorders involving white blood cells include one of the most common human viruses, Epstein-Barr virus which is a member of the herpes virus family. When the body lacks the enzyme adenosine deaminase the body is unable to fight any infections, this disease is known as severe combined immunodeficiency disease. Leukemia which is white blood is cancer due to uncontrolled cell growth.

6.4 Platelets and Blood Clotting
Platelets are made of fragments of large cells known as megakaryocytes made in the red bone marrow. 200 billion platelets are made a day and they help in blood clotting. Platelets clump at the puncture site and seal the break.

Prothrombin activator which converts the plasma protein prothrombin to thrombin which acts as an enzyme that severs 2 short amino acid chains from each fibrinogen molecule. Activated fragments go end to end forming fibrin which winds around the platelet and plug the damaged area.
Disorders related to blood clotting include thrombocytopenia which is an insufficient number of platelets and hemophilia which is inherited is deficiency in clotting. Slightest bump can cause bleeding in the joint in hemophilia.

6.5 Blood Typing and Transfusions
Blood typing is important so that the clumping of red blood cells (agglutination) does not occur. Type A blood has anti-B antibodies and person with type B blood has anti-A antibodies. Person with type O blood has both antibodies.
Blood must be compatible for blood transfusion. Antibodies in plasma must not combine with antigens on surface of red blood cells or agglutination will occur. Agglutination will not occur with type O, the universal donor. Rh blood groups- Rh- people don not have antibodies to Rh factor but make them when exposed to the Rh factor, like a fetus. If mother is Rh- and child is Rh+ then the Rh+ can cross the placenta into mom’s bloodstream. Rh+ antigens cause mom to make anti-Rh antibodies. Hemolytic disease of the newborn is the result of another Rh+ pregnancy which destroys the child’s red blood cells.

The injection of Rh immunoglobulin contains anti- Rh antibodies that will attack the child’s red blood cells in the mothers blood before her immune system will form antibodies. Timing of this injection is important, must be given within 72 hours after giving birth to an Rh+ child.

6.6 Homeostasis
For homeostasis to happen the cardiovascular system has to deliver oxygen from the lungs and nutrients from the digestive system to, and take away metabolic wastes from the tissue fluid that surrounds cells and the lymphatic system returns tissue fluid to the bloodstream.

Chapter 7: Lymphatic System and Immunity
7.1- Microbes, Pathogens, and You
7.2- The Lymphatic System
7.3- Nonspecific Defenses
7.4- Specific Defenses
7.5- Acquired Immunity
7.6- Hypersensitivity Reactions

7.1 Microbes, Pathogens, and You
We eat foods produced by bacteria everyday. Bacteria helps to produce cheese, yogurt, bread, beer, wine & pickled foods. Pathogens are bacteria & viruses that can cause infectious diseases. Our bodies defend us against this with barriers to their entry such as our skin and mucous membranes, 1st responders like white blood cells and specific defenses that can stop infection by killing the disease causing agents.
Bacteria are single cell prokaryotes that have 3 shapes; bacillus which are rod shaped, spirillum are curved and coccus are in sphere shapes. Some are surrounded by capsules (thick, gummy consistency) which helps bacteria to stick to places and keep white blood cells from killing them. Stiff fibers or fimbriae help bacteria to adhere to places and gain access to the body. The pilus transfers DNA. Plasmid contains genes that help bacteria to be resistant to antibiotics.
Viruses are alive when they replicate inside cells. They are acellular. Viruses can cause herpes, AIDS, colds, flu and more. Viruses consist of 2 parts, an outer capsid that has protein units and an inner core of nucleic acid. Viruses carry genetic info to reproduce itself. Some different viruses are the Ebola virus that can cause tissue damage, internal bleeding, organ failure and death. The Lassa virus causes hemorrhagic fever. The West Nile virus is moving across the country. Viral diseases are caused by insect to person.
Prions are proteinaceous infectious particles that cause Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and mad cow disease. Caused by ingestion of brain & nerve tissues from infected animals. When certain proteins change their shape is when disease can occur, with the wrong shape they cannot function.

7.2- The Lymphatic System
Lymphatic vessels and lymphatic organs make up the lymphatic system. There are 4 main functions that help with homeostasis 1- excess tissue fluid is absorbed and returned to the bloodstream by the lymphatic capillaries, 2- lacteals which are lymphatic capillaries absorb fat in the form of lipoproteins and get them to the bloodstream, 3- production, maintenance, and distribution of lymphocytes and 4- helps defend against pathogens.
Lymph is the fluid inside the lymphatic vessels. Lymph is taken to the cardiovascular veins by a one-way system capillaries, vessels and then ducts. Red bone marrow and the thymus gland are the primary lymphatic organs. Red bone marrow is what produces all types of blood cells. In adults its production is limited to certain bones (sternum, ribs, pelvic girdle..) and in children its produced in all bones. The thymus gland makes thymic hormones and helps immature T lymphocytes to migrate and mature. The thymus is critical to immunity. The secondary lymphatic organs are lymph nodes and spleen, they stand guard over the lymph and blood and purify. The spleen filters blood, without a spleen a person is more susceptible to infections. Lymph nodes filter lymph, macrophages filter lymph as it moves through the sinuses and engulf pathogens and debris. Lymphocytes fight infection and attack cancer cells.

7.3- Nonspecific Defenses
The ability to fight diseases and cancer is called immunity. Two lines of defense are the entry barriers and phagocytic white blood cells, neutrophils, and macrophages. A special reaction that the body has when first invaded is known as inflammatory response.
Entry barriers are skin and mucous membranes such as obviously all of our skin and the mucous membranes that line our digestive, respiratory, reproduction and urinary tracts. Barriers that kill or weaken bacteria on the skin are called chemical barriers- oil gland secretions. Lysozyme is an antibacterial enzyme found in saliva, tears and sweat. Acid pH of the stomach presents growth or kills many types of bacteria, same with the acidity of the vagina which stops pathogens. Resident bacteria or normal flora keeps potential pathogens from taking up residence.
Cytokines are reinforcements for neutrophils attracting white blood cells like monocytes which are longer lived cells that become macrophages. These are stronger than neutrophils.
Protective proteins include the complement system which helps with certain immune responses.

7.4- Specific Defenses
Specific defenses take action when nonspecific ones have failed at beating an infection. Antigens are foreign to the body and the immune system can see this. B or T cells have plasma membrane receptor proteins. B cells characteristics include production and maturation in bone marrow, recognizing antigens and undergoing clonal selection. Clonal expansion makes antibody secreting plasma cells. T cells characteristics include being produced in bone marrow and maturing in the thymus. Cytotoxic T cells destroy nonself antigen bearing cells and secrete cytokines that control the immune response.
Structure of an antibody is shown below:

Antibodies consist of five different classes- IgG- major in blood, less in lymph and tissue fluid. They bind to pathogens and toxins. IgM- pentamers- are first antibodies produced by a newborn’s body, first to appear in blood after an infection begins and first to disappear before its over. IgA- are monomers or dimers with two Y shaped structures. These are the main antibodies on body secretions. IgD- antigen receptors on immature B cells. IgE- prevent parasitic worm infections.

7.5- Acquired Immunity
Immunity happens naturally through infection or artificially with medical intervention. Two types include active where a person can produce antibodies and passive where a person gets an injection of prepared antibodies. Immunizations help active immunity with vaccines. Presence of memory B cells and memory T cells are what active immunity relies on. Passive immunity is not long term. Gamma globulin injections are given to people who are unexpectedly exposed to an infectious disease.
Antibodies secreted from the same B cells to fight a specific antigen are called monoclonal antibodies. All are made by plasma cells derived from the same B cell and all are the same.
Cytokines are being tested for therapy for cancer and AIDS. Interleukins made by white blood cells have been used to help enhance T cells to fight cancer.

7.6- Hypersensitivity Reactions
Hypersensitivity reactions occur when the immune system responds in a way that harms the body. Allergies are a hypersensitivity reaction, allergens usually include tissue damage. Anaphylactic shock occurs when the allergen enters the blood stream. Tissue rejection is when cytotoxic T cells respond by attacking cells of transplanted tissue. The use of animal organs instead of human organs is known as xenotransplantation.
Disorders of the immune system include MS and rheumatoid arthritis and others. Autoimmune disease occurs when cytotoxic T cells or antibodies attack the body’s own cells by mistake.

AIDS Supplement:
S.1- Origin and Prevalence of HIV
S.2- Phases of an HIV Infection
S.3- HIV Structure and Life Cycle

S.1- Origin and Prevalence of HIV
AIDS- acquired immunodeficiency syndrome caused by a virus. Human immunodeficiency virus- HIV. Two types of HIV are HIV-1 and HIV-2, 1 is more widespread. Helper T cells and macrophages are infected and destroyed by HIV. HIV started in Africa around 1959 and has spread around the world since. An estimated 38.6 million people in the world have HIV.

S.2- Phases of an HIV Infection
HIV-1C occurs more in Africa, HIV-1B is more common in the U.S. In an acute phase a person is asymptomatic and highly infectious. First few weeks a person becomes infected they can have flu like symptoms that can last two weeks, then can have no symptoms for years. It takes twenty-five days for HIV antibodies to be detected in body fluids. Chronic phase although not yet considered AIDS comes with a lot of symptoms and the number of HIV particles are on the rise. The final phase is AIDS, a person won’t die from the HIV infection but from some other opportunistic disease such as Kaposi’s sarcoma, toxoplasmic encephalitis and pneumonia.

S.3- HIV Structure and Life Cycle
The matrix which helps protect the HIV virus consists of three important enzymes; reverse transcriptase, integrase and protease. The reproductive cycle of HIV is attachment, fusion, entry, reverse transcription, integration, biosynthesis and cleavage, assembly and budding…shown below:
Blood, semen, vaginal fluids and breast-milk all can transmit HIV. Abstinence is the best way to prevent this. Hugging, toilet seats, door knobs, pets, and casual kissing are ways that will not spread this.
Therapy is now available to prevent early death, although there is no cure for AIDS.

A Day of Food..

Everything I ate today is as follows...


A package of fruit snacks and water for breakfast


For lunch I had a pepperoni calzone


For dinner I had 2 bean tostada's piled high w/ cheese and to top my dinner off I had a candy bar.

I think my diet could be better and healthier, maybe if I ate a real breakfast or a yogurt or bagel or something rather than fruit snacks. I ate over 2000 calories today and after reading in the cosmo magazine and doing the math with my weight and height it says I should be eating a little over 1500. Though I don't feel overweight I should maybe take on a healthier diet and lifestyle all together.

If I was going to change anything with what I ate today I maybe would have had some real fruit and only one tostada for dinner. I was good after the 1st one but they were so good I just kept going! Ha that'll probably catch up with me soon! HA!

This kind of nutritional tracking is helpful if you take the time to use it and be honest, but I can see where it might get time consuming and when the numbers start adding up it could get easy to not mention everything you ate.. But definately if I could stick to using this I think it could be very helpful in leading a healthier life.

Unit 2- Lab Project- Exercise Physiology

The purpose of this project was to measure our body's metabolic rates, (pulse, respiration rate and blood pressure) at rest and after an activity to see the changes an activity can make on our metabolic parameters. I chose for my three activities to ride a bike, toss a football around and to do ten jumping jacks. My hypothesis is that at rest my metabolic rates will be within the normal range but once I'm done with an activity they will all be higher, especially after the bike ride and jumping jacks.


These are the materials I used.. my nephew's bike and football, grandpa's blood pressure taking apparatus and my sister's watch..



Taking my blood pressure, pulse and respirations at rest.. My hypothesis is that my metabolic rates will be within normal range here..

Activity #1: riding the bike, which is so much harder when out of shape!!! My hypothesis for this activity is that my metabolic rates will be much higher.
Activity #2: tossing the football around the yard... I think that for this activity my metabolic rates will rise some but not as much as the bike ride or jumping jacks.
Activity #3: the jumping jacks, which thankfully did get easier!! I think here my metabolic rates will rise the way they did after my bike ride.
*********************Metabolic Rate Data Table***************
(A little hard to see I know, I couldn't get this copied to my blog so I had to take a picture of the computer screen and upload it that way..)

Bar graphs of the means showing the measurement changes for each activity are below: As the bar graphs show my hypothesis was partly correct, at rest I was in normal limits and with the bike ride and jumping jacks my were the activities with the higher metabolic measurements, but with activity #2, tossing the football around my measurements didn't really rise that much not the way I anticipated. Overall definatley the bike ride had a greater impact on my metabolic measurements.

I believe the only problem with my data and my hypothesis is that I thought tossing the football around would take more out of me and cause my metabolic rates to be higher, guess I'm a tiny bit more in shape than I thought! HA!

Whenever we are active or just resting no matter what it is, it is having an effect on both our circulatory and respiratory systems. It is definatley interesting to see what kind of effect or how much on one an activity or exercise can have on our metabolic rates. This assignment has helped me to want to work at getting in shape and exercise regularly.

Unit 2/ Topic 1 Online Lab- Blood Pressure

This is the graph results of a group of 10 people, the average blood pressure results for men and women ranging from 11-54 years of age.

This is the same results put into a table, maybe easier to read for some. 1st row is 11-17 years olds, 2nd- 18-24, 3rd- 25-34, 4th- 35-44 and the last row is 45-54 year olds.

MEN WOMEN

Systolic Diastolic Systolic Diastolic

Journal Questions:

State a problem about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure.
Blood pressure runs higher in males and higher in general as we grow older.

Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender of the group members.
I believe as we grow older our blood pressure will get higher before topping out at a norm and for males it will always run higher than for females.

How will you use the investigation screen to test your hypothesis? What steps will you follow? What data will you record?
By comparing the results from males to females I will be ble to support my hypothsis. I will find the systoilic and diastolic pressure for men and women in the age groups. I will record what it is for males and compare those to what I find for the females in the age groups.

Analyze the result of your experiment. Explain any patterns you observed.
I find that blood pressure was the same for both men and women when they were younger, but as age increases so does the blood pressure and it becomes higher for men than for women.

Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood pressure averages?
The result of the experiment does support my hypothesis, men do have higher blood pressure than women. Age and gender do play a role in blood pressure averages.

During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these individuals that might explain their high reading?
I did see some blood pressure readings that were out of the normal range. After viewing these patient's charts I seen their higher blood pressure readings were because of hypertension running in the family, lack of exercise, drinking alcohol, and a high salt diet. All factors don't have to occur at once for hypertension to be possible.

List risk factors associated with the hypertension. Based on your observation, which risk factor do you think is most closely associated with hypertension?
High salt diets, family history of hypertension, lack of exercise and alcohol consumption. I think lack of exercise and high salt diets play a bigger role in hypertension.

What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure?
Obesity can cause hypertension because there is no exercise and probably a lot of junk foods that are high in salts. Adding obesity to family history of hypertension could definately bring a higher risk for hypertension.